The Development History of Cloisonné

No matter what culture enters China, itmust have a Chinese name. Cloisonné is no exception; it also has a Chinesename: *Jingtai Lan*. Many handicrafts in the Ming Dynasty had their own uniquenames, and these names generally first emphasized the reign title and then theobject itself. For example, the Xuande furnace, Chenghua cup, and Wanli cabinetI’ve mentioned before all emerged and became popular during their respectivedynasties. However, cloisonné did not appear during the Jingtai period; it wasintroduced to China as early as the Yuan Dynasty. It was during the Jingtaiperiod, due to imperial attention, that it flourished and gained fame, thusacquiring the easy-to-understand and literarily rich name we use today—*JingtaiLan*.

The name *Jingtai Lan* appeared verylate; it was not used during the Jingtai period, or even throughout the entireMing Dynasty. There is a record from the Qing Dynasty’s Yongzheng period: inthe *Work Records of the Imperial Workshop* of the 6th year of Yongzheng’sreign, it states, “On the 5th day of the 5th lunar month… The flower patternson the imitation Jingtai Lan enamel vase are not good. Imperial order.” This isthe earliest written record of *Jingtai Lan*. However, the meaning variesdepending on punctuation. Is it “Jingtai Lan enamel vase” or “Jingtai blueenamel vase”? Ancient Chinese texts had no punctuation, so interpretationrelied on context and reading ability. Thus, we cannot confirm whethercloisonné was called *Jingtai Lan* during the Yongzheng period.  

Chen Liu of the late Qing Dynastyclearly recorded in *Tao Ya*: “Copper is used as the base, inlaid with copperwires, with hollow patterns filled with colored glazes. It was called *JingtaiLan* in the past, and now it is called enamel.” Chen Liu believed that suchhandicrafts were once called *Jingtai Lan* and now enamel, but he actually gotit reversed—they were once called enamel and now *Jingtai Lan*. This recordindicates that by the late Qing Dynasty at least, the name *Jingtai Lan* hadspread and been accepted by society as an easy-to-understand term.  

A question arises: why is it called*Jingtai Lan* (Jingtai blue) instead of *Jingtai Green*, *Jingtai Red*, or*Jingtai Yellow*? This is because cloisonné is dominated by blue tones.Cloisonné is an imported culture, introduced to China from the Arab region ofthe Middle East, where blue is a prominent color in Arab culture. If you evervisit an Arab country, you’ll notice that blue is a crucial hue in theirarchitecture.  

There was a misunderstanding thatcloisonné was created during the Jingtai period or first appeared in the MingDynasty. Through years of researching ancient texts and comparative studies, wenow know that cloisonné existed in the Yuan Dynasty, leading to a reevaluationof previously identified artifacts. For example, the cloisonné three-legged zunwith interlocking lotus patterns in the collection of the Palace Museum inBeijing is inscribed with the double-dragon mark “Made in the Great MingJingtai Reign.” If we remove the upper and lower parts of this zun, leavingonly the middle section, it bears striking similarities to typical Yuanblue-and-white porcelain jars in both pattern and shape. Moreover, the glaze onthe upper and lower parts of the zun clearly differs from the middle section.By comparing it with corresponding porcelain, we can confirm that the middlesection is a Yuan Dynasty cloisonné jar, later modified during the MingDynasty. This demonstrates the advantage of artifact comparison.  

Inspired by this Palace Museum zun,numerous Yuan Dynasty cloisonné pieces have been identified, such as cloisonnévases in the style of jade-hu spring vases (a shape popular in the YuanDynasty, allowing for analogical reasoning). Additionally, gui-style censersand ding-style censers can be compared horizontally with Longquan celadon ofthe time. It is now clear that a large number of cloisonné works, crafted byChinese artisans, existed in the Yuan Dynasty.

The earliest surviving cloisonnéartifacts date mostly to the Xuande period of the Ming Dynasty. By this time,the craftsmanship had formed distinct stylistic features, with exquisitetechniques approaching maturity. Existing pieces include vases, plates, bowls,censers, round boxes, and incense burners, with later additions of appreciationpieces like ding tripods. The base materials were gold and copper. Patternsoften featured banana leaves, taotie motifs, lions playing with balls, westernlotus, and great Ming lotus. Glaze colors included sky blue (light blue),sapphire blue (lapis lazuli), light green (grass green), dark green (jadegreen), red (bloodstone red), white (mother-of-pearl white), and yellow. Thelarge western lotus bowl from the Xuande period in the Palace Museum, withplump flower shapes, vivid colors, and solid glaze, is representative of thisera.  

Cloisonné works from the Jingtai period(as seen in artifacts displayed in the Palace Museum and elsewhere) showedsignificant technological development. The Imperial Workshop (*Yuyongjian*) inthe imperial palace housed a workshop for making cloisonné (*Ri Xia Jiu WenKao*). By this period, base-making techniques had reached a high level, withboth square and round bases, and a shift toward practical use. Beyond vases,plates, bowls, boxes, incense burners, and ding tripods, items includedflowers, flowerpots, washbasins, charcoal basins, lamps, candlesticks, zunvessels, and pots. Themes included auspicious motifs like dragons playing withpearls, kui dragons and phoenixes, as well as Taoist and Buddhist elements likecloud cranes and flames. Great Ming lotus patterns became more lush, withlively, layered branches. New glaze colors emerged, such as grape purple(amethyst), kingfisher blue (between sky blue and sapphire blue), and magenta(rose). The glaze of this period had inherent brightness and purity, radiatinglike gemstones—a standard never again achieved in subsequent eras. In terms ofdecoration, great emphasis was placed on metalwork: the tops, lids, ears, andfoot edges of items often featured chiseled designs. Mr. Zhu Jiajin noted thatbase-making, wire inlay, alignment, polishing, refinement, and gilding duringthis period represented a further improvement over the Xuande era (*CulturalRelics*, Issue 1, 1960).  

Ming Dynasty cloisonné was mostlyutilitarian vessels, many modeled after traditional ceramic and bronze shapes.Decorative patterns were dominated by great Ming lotus, with a few linkedflowers and transformed bronze motifs. The color palette centered on “twoblues” (lake blue), complemented by少量 red, white,green, and yellow. The colors were unified and tasteful, with well-proportioneddecoration; the copper decorations were elegantly shaped, combining thick andthin elements to highlight focal points. The mature period of cloisonnécraftsmanship in the Ming Dynasty was renowned worldwide for its vibrant colorsand rich ethnic artistic style.  

The Qing Dynasty marked another periodof development for cloisonné craftsmanship. Thanks to social stability andeconomic prosperity, the *Zaoban Chu* (Imperial Workshop) was established inthe Yangxin Hall of the Forbidden City. In the 30th year of Kangxi’s reign(1691), the workshop employed hundreds of craftsmen. In the 32nd year (1693),specialized divisions (*Zuo*) were set up to produce various imperialartifacts, including an enamel division. However, craftsmanship during thisperiod saw little progress compared to the Ming Dynasty. It was during theQianlong period (1736–1796) that cloisonné, along with carved lacquer andgold-inlaid lacquer, experienced unprecedented growth. In the 4th year ofQianlong’s reign, enamel artist Liang Shaowen was recruited from Guangzhou, andYangzhou artist Wang Shixiong was invited to the palace to make enamelware.During this era, cloisonné was ubiquitous in the imperial palace: from smallbed curtain hooks to large screens, even pagodas as tall as buildings (displayedin the Qianlong Garden of the Palace Museum’s Treasure Gallery and the mainhall of Xiaobulage in Chengde’s Outer Eight Temples), as well as daily itemslike tables, chairs, beds, wine vessels, inkstones, boxes, brush rests,architectural decorations, and religious artifacts.  

Late Qing Dynasty to Republic ofChina Cloisonné  
After Qianlong’s reign, cloisonnédeclined sharply. Why? The national economic downturn directly affected luxurygoods. Cloisonné had the highest production cost among all handicrafts, as itused copper for the base. Copper was historically a raw material for coins, sothe amount of copper used equated to the amount of money spent. Even抛开 the costs of its complex craftsmanship, the raw material cost alonewas extremely high. Thus, after the mid-Qing Dynasty, cloisonné declinedrapidly.  
During the Republic of China, cloisonnébegan to enter civilian life. At this time, there were folk workshops producingcloisonné in Beijing, Yangzhou, Guangzhou, and other places. Famous shopsselling cloisonné included Laotianli, Dexingcheng, Baohuasheng, andJingyuantang. Cloisonné from the late Qing to the Republic of China haddistinct characteristics: the bases were very thin and light when lifted,unlike older pieces, which were heavy. However, the wire inlay was extremelydelicate—craftsmanship compensated for material deficiencies. With less copperavailable, intricate patterns made up for it.
The late Qing to Republic of Chinaperiod coincided with the fourth wave of collecting enthusiasm, with manyWesterners coming to collect Chinese cultural relics. Westerners highly valuedcloisonné, seeing it as a quintessential example of Chinese court oraristocratic culture, so much of it flowed to Europe. As a result, antiqueshops without cloisonné were considered low-grade; discerning buyers wouldleave immediately if they saw no cloisonné.
Why did Westerners recognize theimportance of cloisonné? When they entered the Forbidden City, they saw thatall important halls displayed cloisonné, including pairs of large ding-stylecensers, giant cranes, and “peaceful elephants,” all large pieces. The Qingcourt had strict regulations and attached great importance to cloisonné. Forexample, during the New Year’s Eve feast in the 44th year of Qianlong’s reign,only the emperor’s table was set with nearly all cloisonné utensils, while theaccompanying tables used porcelain and silverware. This underscored cloisonné’sexalted status in the imperial court.  

Preservation and Inheritance Afterthe Founding of New China  
After the founding of the People’sRepublic of China, cloisonné artists’ cultural and artistic literacy improvedsignificantly, especially after the 1960s, with the addition of professionaltechnicians effectively enhancing the overall quality of the workforce. Thecloisonné industry diligently inherited and absorbed the strengths oftraditional cloisonné: stable and diverse shapes, rich patterns, vivid colors,and fine wirework. It revived production of traditional items such as censers,ding tripods, pots, three-dimensional animals, candlesticks, andonce-celebrated yet difficult pieces like six-petaled vases, plum vases, andcrabapple vases. Themes included popular auspicious patterns, brocadebackgrounds, interlocking lotus, dragons, phoenixes, and lions, as well asborrowed elements from ancient folk art and Dunhuang murals. It also replicatedexquisite ancient artifacts suitable for cloisonné, such as gold-inlaid andsilver-inlaid beans, pots, and porcelain phoenix-headed flat pots and backpots. This new attempt was highly successful, preserving the antiquity of theoriginal objects while enriching cloisonné varieties.  
In 1959, to celebrate the 10thanniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic, designers and artisanscreated the novel *Large Fish and Lotus Fish Tank* for the Great Hall of thePeople, with a simple, robust shape and lively, charming patterns. In the1970s, rare large-scale works like the *Lion Censer*, *Pavilion Censer*, *LionPlaying with a Ball Plate*, and *Peacock Pot* were designed and produced.  

Following the principle of“applicability, economy, and beauty,” cloisonné craftsmanship developed towardintegrating decoration with practicality, creating items such as smoking sets,stationery, lamps, tea sets, chopstick rests, business card cases, jewelryboxes, condiment sets, electronic table clocks, wall hangings, tables, stools,screens, and trophies. These featured innovative, elegant designs with strongethnic styles. Additionally, many excellent works reflected contemporary life,such as the fresh and vibrant *Plum Ode Plate*, the romantic *Steel FlowerVase*, *Yan’an Vase*, and *Eight Views of the Capital*—countless pieces thatcombined contemporary spirit with high ideological and artistic value.  
Production volume increased hundreds oftimes compared to before the founding of the People’s Republic, with over 1,000varieties and specifications, and significantly improved quality. Cloisonné wasexported to over 100 countries across five continents. It was often used bystate agencies as valuable gifts for foreign dignitaries, enhancinginternational exchanges and solidarity. China’s first National Games and theAsian-African and Asian-African-Latin American Table Tennis InvitationalTournaments used cloisonné trophies, embodying winners’ honors through itsrenowned ancient artistic value.  
On June 5, 1997, the *UniversalCelebration* pair of vases, each 1.8 meters tall, 0.8 meters in maximumdiameter, and weighing 192 kilograms, designed and produced by the BeijingEnamel Factory, were presented as gifts from Beijing to the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region in a grand ceremony.
In April 1998, to mark the 850thanniversary of Moscow’s founding, a pair of large cloisonné vases made by theBeijing Enamel Factory were chosen as Beijing’s gifts to the city.  
In 2005, cloisonné craftsmen revived thecast base technique, creating *Buddhist Treasures: Eight Divisions of HeavenlyDragons*, a set of eight works based on Buddhist scriptures, each 48centimeters tall and 18 centimeters in diameter, featuring over 50 figures.This cast-base cloisonné uses copper casting for the base, followed by wireinlay, glaze filling, firing, and gilding, resulting in a solid, heavyappearance with complex and varied shapes.

Historically, the base-making processrelied entirely on workers hammering copper sheets into various shapes, whichwas inefficient and labor-intensive, often producing irregular products. In1958, workers at the Beijing Enamel Factory developed a rolling machine (alsocalled a “rolling bed”) for cloisonné, which was improved over time to handlelarge vases from small ones, greatly increasing productivity in base-making.Machine-made bases allowed for edge curling, producing regular, uniform blankswith fewer solder joints, reducing black seams at the瓶口and improving quality. Previously, finished products suffered from sand holesand air bubbles; this was largely resolved by adding a base-cleaning step—usingsulfuric acid to remove impurities before proceeding to the next stage.  

In the late 1990s, the wire-inlayprocess adopted worker-developed grounding machines and glue wire machines,with semi-mechanization introduced for high-volume, standardized wirework. Somepatterns, such as cloud heads, plum blossoms, peach blossoms, hooked lotus, andeight-character codes, were produced using molds. Glaze application switched toextrusion tubes, improving efficiency and quality for certain patterns. Glazewas crushed using electric ball mills, making grinding more labor-efficient andfiner. Coal-fired kilns for firing were gradually replaced by electric furnacesand liquefied petroleum gas furnaces in the early 1970s.  
From 2003, technical upgrades introducednatural gas for firing, which was environmentally friendly andenergy-efficient, solving the long-standing problem of “nine out of ten pieceswith sand holes” that severely affected quality. For centuries, the polishingprocess relied on manual grinders; later, with assistance from the Beijing No.5 Design Institute, electric polishers were successfully developed. Continuousimprovements, including buffing with cloth wheels, ensured cloisonné productswere “flat, smooth, shiny, and bright,” with higher quality than in anyhistorical period. To this day, cloisonné has truly entered the market andbecome a household name in art.